In August 1944, two months after President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen's Readjustment Act, also known as the GI Bill of Rights, the National Negro Publishers Association warned that despite its race-neutral appearance, the law would exclude Black veterans.
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Books
Goldman, Peter Louis. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. 2nd ed. University of Illinois Press, 1979.
Joseph, Peniel. The Sword and the Shield: The Revolutionary Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Basic Books, 2020.
Malcolm X with Haley, Alex. Autobiography of Malcolm X. 1965.
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Resources
https://www.livescience.com/martin-luther-king-jr-and-malcolm-x-similarities.html
https://www.npr.org/2023/05/15/1175833143/mlk-martin-luther-king-jr-malcolm-x-quote-biography
https://www.biography.com/activists/martin-luther-king-jr-malcolm-x-meeting
https://lbj.utexas.edu/black-power-scholar-illustrates-how-mlk-and-malcolm-x-influenced-each-other
https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/learning-from-malcolm-x.htm
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While Malcolm X had criticized the March on Washington, King wrote an essay in 1965 expressing his intent to employ nonviolent civil disobedience as a peaceful means to paralyze cities and pursue justice beyond civil and voting rights acts.
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In his final nationally televised speech, delivered on March 25, 1965, King addressed American democracy, racial justice, and the challenges ahead. By August 6, 1965, the Voting Rights Act had passed, but just days later, the Watts uprising erupted in Los Angeles. Following the Watts uprising, King and Malcolm X's perspectives began to converge.
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Despite the violent events of Bloody Sunday, where Alabama state troopers attacked nonviolent demonstrators on the Edmund Pettus Bridge, King remained resolute. President LBJ eventually acknowledged the protesters as American heroes, and the Selma to Montgomery demonstration attracted thousands, including allies like Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel.
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The visions of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King converged following Malcolm X's assassination. King experienced a "mountaintop moment" and realized that he needed to return to the valley. The Selma to Montgomery march became a crucial event, solidifying King's conviction.
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The roles of Martin Luther King and Malcolm X intertwined in a captivating dance. However, after Malcolm X's assassination, a significant irony and transformation occurred: King assumed the role of Black America's prosecuting attorney.
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This new perspective prompted Malcolm X to arrange a meeting with King, but the meeting never happened. It was scheduled for Tuesday, February 24, 1965 but two days earlier Malcolm X was assassinated by Nation of Islam members. In a letter to Malcolm X’s wife following his assassination, King acknowledged their differing philosophies and approaches.
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After Malcolm X broke ties with the separatist Muslim movement, he began to speak more reverently of the viewpoints of Martin Luther King Jr. He publicly acknowledged, "Dr. King wants the same thing I want - freedom!"
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The disagreement came to a head the following year in 1963 when it was revealed that Muhammed had been carrying on extra-marital affairs – a serious violation of the Nation of Islam’s strict teachings. Dismayed by Muhammed’s hypocrisy and realizing the Nation’s limitations due to its stringent doctrine, Malcolm X broke with the movement in 1964.
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The GI Bill offered housing, education, and job training funds, along with business loans and unemployment insurance, which provided social mobility for millions of veterans. However, deliberate loopholes allowed states to deny Black veterans the rights and privileges they had earned through their service.
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